Abstract
Transition from military to civilian life requires Australian Defence Force (ADF) members to re‑establish self‑agency across multiple wellbeing domains previously shaped by organisational control. This mixed‑methods longitudinal cohort study examined how self‑agency and wellbeing evolve during transition, using the ADF Human Security Framework. Quantitative data were collected at three transition points, at the commencement of transition (N=950) at the point of transition (N=379) and six months post transition (N=179) Findings demonstrate significant variation in transition outcomes by mode of transition and rank, with further declines observed post‑transition in several wellbeing domains. Perceptions of control and satisfaction, particularly in relation to post transition employment and health, emerged as key predictors of positive and sustained transition outcomes, reinforcing the need for intersectional, adaptive transition support.
Keywords: transition, wellbeing, self-agency
Introduction
Military forces embed practices of compliance in the workforce to ensure the safety and security of that workforce and the nation served.1 The Australian Defence Force (ADF) is no different. Compliance with rules, regulations and directives commences from day one with recruits expected to assimilate into military life through rigorous specialised military training, assumption of customs, traditions and cultural norms.2 To deliver on capability requirements, the organisation continues to exercise control over various aspects of the member’s life during their service consequently impacting the role of self-agency in decision-making processes. This includes controlling job role, posting location, frequency of posting, where members will live, who their teammates are, and to a degree, who they socialise with outside of the military environment as many relationships are impacted by frequent postings, exercises and deployments. To enable a member to perform at consistently high levels for extended periods of time, the organisation provides free health care, subsidised housing, childcare and financial entitlements to compensate for demands of military life.3
When it comes time to leave the Defence Force (i.e., transition), these are all areas of wellbeing the member will be expected to resume control over to prepare for post military civilian life. Previous research has examined various aspects of military service, including its unique characteristics, impacts on individual wellbeing, and the challenges associated with transitioning to civilian life.4 However, a significant gap remains in understanding how military control over various aspects of the member’s life affects Australian Defence Force (ADF) members’ self-agency and their capacity to take ownership of, and make decisions on, their life choices during transition and into civilian life. This gap is research and knowledge is especially important given the influence of wellbeing domains such as education, employment, finances, health, housing, social connectivity and transport and, how factors like mode of transition, rank, service, and gender may affect transition outcomes.5
While most ADF members navigate this transition successfully, many face significant challenges with reassimilation into civilian life after military service.6 Therefore, exploring the role of self-agency in transition is essential for developing targeted supports and improving long-term transition outcomes. The purpose of this study was not to question the compliance practices of the organisation, rather to understand the impact of military service on the individual to inform the development of the appropriate support that members need in preparation for transitioning to civilian life.
Research Design and Methodology
The research design was anchored in the ADF Human Security Framework (HSF), a structure of seven wellbeing domains consisting of education, employment, finances, health, housing, social connectivity and transport. The framework preceded the wellbeing framework currently used by the Departments of Defence and Veterans’ Affairs and is foundered in the United Nations HSF.
Data was collected between 1 July 2022 and 31 December 2024 through a mixed methods longitudinal cohort study design. Quantitative data was collected using a repeat measures survey at three intervals over the transition period being, at the commencement of transition, upon transition and again six (6) months post transition. The six dependent variables were categorised into the objective measures of preparedness and circumstances and the subjective measures of perceived levels of personal control, preparedness, satisfaction and importance for each wellbeing domain. Members were asked to rate their level of agreement to subjective measures using a four (4) point Likert scale. Objective measures were determined algorithmically.
The results reported are drawn from quantitative data and presented in three separate studies. Study 1 looked to identify any differences between, and within, groups prior to transition (N=950). Groups considered were modes of transition (voluntary/involuntary), rank (Officer/Other Rank), gender (male/female), service (Navy, Army, Air Force). While there are several modes of transition from the ADF that include voluntary, medical, administrative, Command Initiated Transition to Reserves (CITR), Compulsory Retirement Age (CRA), and Transition from Reserves and Gap Year Transition (ADF Transition Manual, 2025), all modes of transition were grouped into one of two categories:
- voluntary (voluntary, gap year or transition from reserves - VOL); or
- involuntary (medically, administrative, CITR, CRA - INVOL)
Study 2 considered the differences between, and within the same groups using data collected at two intervals: at the commencement of transition and again six months post transition (N=379). The study explored the process of an ADF member’s transition to test if the process prepares a member for civilian life and is sustained post transition.
Finally, Study 3 (N=179) changed focus to consider the relationships between domains of wellbeing over the transition period to identify if early measures of wellbeing can predict transition outcomes.
Results
The findings revealed there are differences between various groups of members transitioning from the ADF. Overall, there were significant improvements for both objective and subjective measures across all domains prior to transition which were reported for Study 1. A vast majority of significant differences reported between groups were found across modes of transition (Voluntary/Involuntary) and ranks (Officers/Other Ranks). Very few significant differences were reported between males and females or between the three services themselves. In contrast to the increases seen prior to transition, results from Study 2 indicated a significant decline in objective circumstances in the wellbeing domains of education, finances, housing, social connectivity and transport. The employment and health domains however showed significant improvement in member circumstances and in the perceived levels of control and satisfaction six months after leaving the ADF.
Over the transition period (Studies 1 and 2) changes were observed both between, and within, the groups of mode of transition, rank, gender and service where combinations of wellbeing domains provided better predictions of transition outcomes when compared to single factors working in isolation. Consequently, findings underscore the importance of adopting an intersectional analytical framework that considers the differences between groups in transition when designing transition policy. A one-size-fits-all approach risks overlooking the compounded vulnerabilities experienced by certain subgroups during transition.
In support of results recorded in Study 1 and 2, results from Study 3 indicated that education, employment, health, housing, and transport are significantly associated with overall feelings of control and satisfaction six months post transition. Perceptions of satisfaction and control across wellbeing domains indicated that these measures are meaningful predictors of transition outcomes for ADF members over time. Employment and health emerged as the only domains in which both satisfaction and perceived control significantly contributed to overall control and preparedness. These two domains exerted significant and sustained influence on both perceived control and preparedness, marking them as critical targets for intervention. While some domains show natural recovery or stability, the dynamic interplay between satisfaction, control, and transition outcomes underscores the need for holistic, adaptive, and longitudinally informed support systems. Ultimately, the findings affirm that transition outcomes can be reasonably predicted through domain level perceptions, offering a valuable framework for enhancing transition policy and practice.
Recommendations
While many of the improvements recommended support the process of leaving the ADF across the transition period, adopting a ‘whole of life’ approach could lead to positive improvements to member wellbeing throughout their military career. Introducing an intersectional analytical framework has the potential to assist the design of policies and programs aimed at facilitating effective transitions both within and from military service. Recognising that members are affected by overlapping domains of wellbeing simultaneously will support groups who may face extra challenges during transition. Further longitudinal data collection at an individual level before, during, and after transition would enable the development and implementation of proactive intervention and supports to achieve sustained wellbeing.
Additionally, transition support should focus not only on improving practical circumstances, but also on helping individuals feel capable and in control within each area of wellbeing. This suggests that rebuilding a sense of agency is a complex but necessary process for members of the ADF. People must re-establish their confidence, independence, and identity across several parts of their lives prior to leaving the military environment. Encouragement to participate in civilian social networks, volunteering, and sports could help reduce reverse culture shock and foster belonging. The development of mentoring programs that pair transitioning members with successful veterans could further enhance transition outcomes.
The point of transition is a period of heightened vulnerability, especially for employment, health, and housing. Early identification of at-risk individuals and targeted support at this stage are crucial. Organisational policy requires consideration allowing access to funded transition support throughout service particularly as it relates to education and financial advice. Transition planning should begin early in a military career, with regular financial literacy and career development integrated into professional development for all ranks.
Differences by mode of transition and ranks suggest that a one-size-fits-all approach is insufficient to meet the needs of transitioning members. Transition programs should be refined and tailored to address the specific needs of involuntary transitions and Other Ranks. Where relevant, additional transition coaching, job placement, and health support for those leaving involuntarily should be introduced. Additional resources for Other Ranks, particularly in education and housing, can provide additional support to address structural disadvantages experienced throughout career which impact transition outcomes for this cohort. Recognising their unique transition needs, continued support toward long term educational and social opportunities for female members can lead to improved employment, housing, and financial outcomes.
While the recommendations have been offered based on outcomes from each study, it is important to acknowledge that there are an extensive range of policies, programs and processes in place within the DoD to facilitate and assist with transition. The results from this study suggest that they appear to be underutilised by transitioning members to prepare for civilian life and/or not fully achieving the expected outcomes. Conducting a review of why these programs are not achieving their intended results could lead to improved outcomes for members. Additionally, understanding the reasons behind underutilisation may help guide the redesign of transition interventions, aligning them effectively with current budget limitations.
Conclusion
The results from this study indicates that self-agency is a key factor in positive and sustainable transition outcomes. Members who develop autonomy during service adapt better post-transition, especially in areas such as housing, health, and finances. Results also indicated that early preparation in education, employment, finance, health, and social connectivity strongly correlated with greater satisfaction post transition. While the ADF has created frameworks and support programs to help members transition to civilian life, transition challenges for members persist highlighting that a universal approach may be ineffective in a number of circumstances. The interconnectedness of wellbeing domains means that interventions in one area (e.g., health) can have positive spill over effects in others (e.g., employment, social connectivity). Therefore, based on these results and knowledge of the institution, observations, implications and recommendations distilled from the study have been offered. Additionally, the long-term benefits to a broader aperture could also contribute to improve the recruitment and retention efforts for the DoD.
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3 Department of Defence. Pay and Conditions Manual, Chapter 7, Section 2–8. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2025.
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